Abstracts

Jürgen Beckmann and Frieder Beck, Technische Universität München, Germany

The evolution of the achievement motive and its neurophysiological foundations

To deal with changing and new environments the organism needs to explore in order to establish relevant knowledge structures. Curiosity and anxiety are basic motive systems with important functions for the acquisition of knowledge about the environment and how to deal with it. In the achievement motive this stimulation of exploration is extended to the self. The response of dopaminergic neurons shows striking similarities to McClelland’s theory of achievement motivation and Atkinson’s risk-taking model. It also supports the assumption that curiosity and achievement motivation have a common neurophysiological basis. Berridge und Robinson (1998) developed the idea of ‚incentive salience’ according to which dopamin activation assigns objects and behavior incentive value on which the selection of behavior is based. Dopaminergic activity transforms originally neutral stimuli into objects with high incentive value and increases the energetic effects of rewards and anticipated rewards (Berridge & Robinson, 2003). By way of experience and/or socialization this creates programmed read-only memories (Panksepp, ) which may be equated with McClelland’s motive systems. Furthermore, Zink and colleages (2004) showed that in humans dopaminergic reactions in the case of rewards occurred only when the reward was self determined (self causation).

Stefan Engeser, Technische Universität München, Germany

The measurement of flow

The flow experience has received a great deal of attention within and outside of academic psychology. Methodological and theoretical problems of the research on flow have led to some researchers questioning the concept. To overcome some of the problems, a new instruments to measure flow directly were developed. In a series of studies, the instruments proved to be a valid indicator of the flow experience. These data will be presented. Following this, a focus will be placed on the relationships to the implicit and explicit achievement motive and flow. The explicit achievement motive proved to be positively related to flow and the implicit achievement motive was found to moderate the effect of demands on flow.

Guido H.E. Gendolla, University of Geneva, Switzerland

Manipulating and Measuring Effort: Motivational Intensity and Cardiovascular Response

Effort mobilization follows the basic principle—or motive—of resource conservation: An organism avoids mobilizing more resources than necessary and justified. Based on the principles of motivational intensity theory (Brehm & Self, 1989) and its elaborations, an abundance of experimental studies have shown that the intensity of mobilized effort in instrumental behavior and self-regulation is reliably reflected in cardiovascular reactivity (Wright & Kirby, 2001). Performance-related changes in the activity of the heart and the vasculature sensitively respond to the level of subjective difficulty of instrumental behavior (actual motivation). Variables that refer to the importance of success determine the level of maximally justified effort (potential motivation). Effort-related cardiovascular reactivity rises with subjective task difficulty as long as success appears to be possible and worthwhile. Research examples to be presented and discussed have investigated the role of mood states, depression, self-regulation, and evaluation effects on effort-related cardiovascular response.

Peter Gollwitzer, New York University, NY, USA

The Power of Planning

As highlighted by Kurt Lewin, goal attainment is not yet secured solely by forming strong commitments to highly desirable and feasible goals. There is always the subsequent issue of implementing a set goal, and one wonders what people can do to enhance their chances of being successful at this second phase of goal pursuit. A promising answer seems to be the following: People need to plan out in advance how they want to solve the problems of goal implementation. But what are these problems? There are at least four problems that stand out. These problems include getting started with goal striving, staying on track, calling a halt, and not overextending oneself. I will describe research showing that making if-then plans (i.e., form implementation intentions) on how to deal with these problems indeed facilitates solving the crucial problems of goal implementation. Thereafter, I will ask whether implementation intentions foster goal attainment even under conditions that are commonly viewed as not amenable to self-regulation attempts such as succeeding on an intelligence test or overcoming spider phobia. Finally, I will report research showing that implementation intentions can even foster goal striving in those samples (e.g., children with ADHD) that are known to suffer from impaired action control.

Peter Gröpel, Technische Universität München, Germany

Don’t do today what you can put off till tomorrow: Procrastination and the role of motives and motivational strategies

Procrastination is a tendency to put off the doing of something that should be done.
In the present article, we examine the role of motives and motivational strategies by predicting procrastination. Based on prior research, achievement motive, goal setting and the ability to self-generate positive affect are expected to diminish procrastinating behavior. Samples of students (N = 73), managers (N = 510), and general population (N = 9,351) are used for the analysis. The main findings are: (1) Explicit achievement motive is negatively associated with procrastination whereas explicit affiliation motive is linked to procrastination positively. Implicit motives are not associated with procrastination. (2) Setting goals and the ability to self-generate positive affect are both beneficial for overcoming procrastination. (3) However, goal setting is not necessary for those who are able to generate positive affect. (4) Positive affect reduces procrastination by increasing energy levels. (5) Procrastinating behavior decreases as we age, and this effect is mediated by the development of affect regulatory skills.

Ruth Kanfer, Arizona State University, Atlanta, GA, USA

Motivation in the occupational context: Implications of adult development and a lifespan perspective

The aging of the workforce and changing workplace demands have raised practical challenges
and spurred strong interest in the development of new approaches to work motivation. Recent
studies emphasize reexamination of motive structures and the dynamics of motivation in
multi-layered contexts and across different timescales. A heuristic framework of these developments
is presented, and implications for future theory development and practice are discussed. Two examples
of research that draw from this framework, related to work and aging and motivation of and in work teams, are presented.

Hugo M. Kehr, Technische Universität München, Germany

Research agenda based on the compensatory model of motivation and volition

This talk begins with an introduction of the compensatory model of work motivation (Kehr, AMR, 2004). The compensatory model synthesizes some previously unrelated lines of research to allow an integrated view on structural and functional aspects of motivation. Structural components of the model are implicit motives, explicit motives, and perceived abilities. Functional processes are volitional regulation (compensating for inadequate motivation) and problem solving (compensating for inadequate perceived abilities). The compensatory model integrates, challenges, and extends existing conceptions.
After a brief summary of previous research in support of the compensatory model, the talk outlines our current research agenda. Research projects include an experimental corroboration of the finding that implicit/explicit motive discrepancies predict volitional depletion; a field study on the main and interaction effects of implicit motives, explicit motives, and perceived abilities on creativity and innovation; a test of the proposition that the three structural components of motivation are independent; an experimental comparison of the predictive quality of Csikszentmihalyi's model and the compensatory model for flow; an experimental substantiation of the finding that thematic congruence of leadership styles and implicit motives is conducive for perceived charisma and leadership success; an experimental test of the proposition that the motivating power of visions depends on the motive-fit of the vision; a case study on the application of the compensatory model to organizational change.

Julius Kuhl, University of Osnabrück, Germany

Freedom as a Motive: Implicit Assessment and Explicit Intentions

From a motivational perspective, freedom can be conceived of as self-determination, that is the ability to act in accordance to basic needs for relatedness, competence, and autonomy (Deci & Ryan, 2000). The OMT (Operant Motive Test) was developed to differentiate within each of the three motives assessed by classical TAT procedures (i. e., affiliation, achievement and power) according to their behavioral orientation (approach-avoidance), affective valence (positive versus negative), and level of enactment (self-congruent vs. incentive-motivated). Recently, the OMT has been elaborated to assess freedom as a fourth motive. The postulated status of freedom as a separate motive will be justified conceptually and empirically. On a conceptual level, it will be shown that assessment of freedom as a motive can be accomplished according to the three criteria used in OMT coding to measure the three classical motives (i. e., approach-avoidance, positive vs. negative valence, and self-congruence vs. incentive motivation). Empirically, preliminary data will be presented that confirm the hypothesis that the OMT measure of freedom has unique behavioral correlates. Specifically, fear components of freedom vs. power motives have opposite relationships to a behavioral measure of volitional facilitation (Kuhl & Kazén, 1999): Whereas individuals scoring high on fear of a loss of power show a positive correlated between freedom-threatining primes (e. g., having to obey) and volitional facilitation (i. e., forming explicit intentions and enacting them), individual scoring high on fear of a loss of freedom show the opposite correlation indicating an inhibition of explicit goal pursuit. These findings will be discussed in the context of Fromm’s two existential modes of “to have or to be”.

Thomas A. Langens, University of Wuppertal, Germany

Automatic appraisal of motivational valence: The moderating role of motive-goal congruence

Using a variant of the affective priming paradigm, the present research investigated whether the motivational valence of goal-related stimuli is processed in an automatic fashion. Recent research has demonstrated that intrinsically neutral, but wanted stimuli facilitate responses to positive targets in an affective priming task (Moors & De Houwer, 2001). We investigated whether words and pictures related to personal goals are automatically appraised as positive if the goal is congruent with a person’s implicit motivational needs. Two studies – a field study in which participants provided descriptions of their personal goals and a lab study in which goals were assigned by an experimenter – supported this hypothesis, demonstrating that goal-related stimuli act much like positive primes in an affective priming task, but only if they were congruent with an individual’s implicit motives. However, thematic specificity could only be demonstrated in the lab study and was absent in the field study. These results are discussed with reference to a recent account of the relationship between motive-congruence and well-being (Schultheiss, Jones, Davis & Kley, in press).

Gabriele Oettingen, New York University, NY, USA and University of Hamburg, Germany

From fantasy to action

Successfully realizing one’s future selves affords that a person sets goals in a smart way, that is, that she commits to feasible goals and let go from unfeasible ones. Mentally contrasting one’s positive future selves with obstacles of present reality is an effective strategy to foster smart goal setting (Oettingen, 2000; Oettingen, Pak, & Schnetter, 2001). In contrast, only fantasizing about the positive future or only reflecting the obstacles of present reality leads to goal commitments that fail to take one’s prospects into account. I will first describe research testing the scope of mental contrasting effects showing that mental contrasting furthers smart goal setting also under highly stressful conditions. Then I will argue that motivational variables (energization) and cognitive variables (implementation intentions) are mechanisms supporting mental contrasting effects. Third, translational research shows that mental contrasting can be acquired and used as a cost effective meta-cognitive strategy that helps people initiate and maintain behavior change during everyday life (e.g., in self-discipline indicators such as exercise, diet, persistent studying). Finally, I will ask for the origins of mental contrasting by investigating context variables (problem-solving cues), state of mind variables (mood, alcohol), and socialization variables (responsiveness of the mother) that may affect the propensity to spontaneously engage in mental contrasting. Implications for the self-regulation of behavior change in people belonging to different socio-cultural contexts are discussed.

Maika Rawolle, Kaspar Schattke & Hugo M. Kehr, Technische Universität München, Germany

The motivating power of visions: How idealized mental images differentially arouse implicit motives.

This poster presents a research design investigating the motivating power of visions. Visions are idealised mental images of the future (Conger, 1999). Current leadership theories view visions as a core component of charismatic and transformational leadership (e.g. Conger, 1991). Researchers speculated that visions raise follower motivation (Bass, 1985; Strange & Mumford, 2005). However, empirically, the motivational effects of visions have not yet been established. We aim to fill this gap and to analyze the underlying motivational processes. We assume that visions are effective by arousing implicit motives. The underlying rationale is that images, such as TAT-images, arouse implicit motives (McClelland, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989; Murray, 1943). The same should apply to mental images: visions.
An experiment investigates whether visions motivate by arousing implicit motives. Both independent variables, implicit motives (assessed with TAT) and vision content, are clustered in two thematic domains: agency and communion (Schultheiss & Brunstein, 1999). The experimental condition, vision-content, also realizes a control-condition: neutral vision. We expect that the interaction of implicit motive and vision content predicts agency and communion motive arousal, respectively, assessed by changes in TAT-scores, self-report, and behavioral measures. Furthermore, we expect that inspiration (Thrash & Elliot, 2004) mediates the interaction effect of vision-content and motive-disposition on motive arousal. Subsequently, a field study examines whether thematic fit of corporate visions and employee's implicit motives predicts employee's motivation, well-being and affective commitment

Kaspar Schattke, Maika Rawolle & Hugo M. Kehr, Technische Universität München, Germany

First evidence for the impact of implicit motives on flow experience

According to Kehr’s (2004) compensatory model of work motivation and volition, flow experience results when (1) task related behaviour matches one’s currently aroused implicit motives, (2) no competing explicit motives are aroused, and (3) perceived abilities are sufficient.
These propositions were tested in a labyrinth-task experiment (N=50). Controlling for perceived abilities and competing explicit motives, need for achievement was aroused by performance feedback in an achievement related task. This should foster flow experience, particularly in subjects with high need achievement. In a control group, no performance feedback was administered.
As proposed, need for achievement predicts flow experience. We also found a significant interaction between need achievement and the feedback condition on flow experience which needs further discussion.
In summary, the findings support Kehr’s (2004) motive based approach on flow-experience.

Anja Schiepe, Kaspar Schattke & Hugo M. Kehr, Technische Universität München, Germany

Flow experience in power related tasks

Traditionally, Csikszentmihalyi (1975) characterizes flow-experience as balance between challenge and skill which implies a conceptual relatedness to achievement motivation. However, the compensatory model of work motivation and volition (Kehr, 2004) assumes that flow will result if (1) the current task arouses implicit motives while (2) no competing explicit motives are activated and (3) perceived abilities are sufficient. First evidence for the impact of the implicit achievement motive on flow in achievement related tasks has been reported by Schattke, Engeser and Kehr (2008).
According to Kehr (2004) this should also apply for the implicit power motive in power related situations. To test this proposition we will run a field study. A social software platform will be developed which arouses the implicit power motive. We will use the experience sampling method (Csikszentmihalyi, Larson & Prescott, 1977) to measure flow. To test causality of the effects we will run a laboratory study as well.

Oliver C. Schultheiss, Friedrich-Alexander University, Erlangen, Germany

Tending the instrument: The Picture Story Exercise as a measure of if…then-contingencies and a fair and balanced examination of its overlap with a stimulus- and response-matched measure of explicit motives

Despite more than 50 years of research that has employed the Picture Story Exercise (PSE), the chief measure of implicit motives, only comparatively few empirical studies have examined how this instrument actually works. In this talk, I will address three basic issues related to motive measurement with the PSE. First, I will present descriptive data on various PSE picture stimuli that suggest that each picture’s motivational pull can be determined precisely and reliably. Second, I will examine the question why PSE motive measures can have substantial retest reliability despite low or sometimes even negative internal consistency. I will present evidence from a longitudinal study suggesting that both phenomena can be explained based on Mischel and Shoda’s (1995) framework of stable if…then-contingencies. Third, I will re-examine the issue of overlap between PSE-based measures of implicit motives and declarative measures of self-attributed (or explicit) motives. In studies in which PSE motive measures were compared to declarative measures of motivational needs that used the same picture cues as the PSE and response items covering the same themes that PSE content coding is based on, variance overlap between implicit and explicit motives was low and non-significant despite high statistical power. Thus, even if commensurable assessment methods are used, implicit and explicit motives remain independent constructs.

Jörg Seeliger, Kaspar Schattke & Hugo M. Kehr, Technische Universität München, Germany

Do effective corporate visions enhance sustainable corporate performance?

Conger (1989) defines corporate visions as mental images that depict an idealized future for an organization. Current economics research indicates that visions are directly related to venture growth (e.g. Baum, Kirkpatrick and Locke, 1998). Our research intends to substantiate that corporate visions corresponding to certain criteria are economically more effective than visions which do not correspond to these criteria.
At first, we derived a set of criteria for the quality of corporate visions from the literature. According to this, visions are ambitious, defy conventional wisdom, challenge existing norms and policies, convey expectations of high performance, and instill confidence in followers that they can achieve the vision (Conger & Kanungo, 1987; House et al., 1991; Shamir et al., 1993). In a pilot study, we found a four factor structure: illustration, encouragement, ambition and feasibility. On the basis of these factors, we are currently evaluating the quality of the corporate visions of the DAX 30, Germany's largest companies. Furthermore, we intend to analyze the relationship between the quality of a corporate vision and performance indicators of the respective company. Our hypothesis is that high quality visions foster corporate performance.

James Shah, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA

Regulatory Rotation: The Shuffling and Shedding of Strivings in Goal Management

An important, although perhaps under-examined, component of effective self-regulation, is the manner in which we prioritize, schedule and return to our various pursuits and resolve goal conflict in order to best ensure the successful attainment of as many goals as possible. Our talk will detail recent research examining various mechanisms involved in such goal management, focusing in particular on the manner in which individuals’ optimally seize moments for goal pursuit and how they come to recognize when moments pass. This ongoing research will also be discussed in terms of its implications defining optimal goal management.

Kurt Sokolowski, University of Siegen, Germany

Computer based motive measure – Quo vadis MMG?

The term motivation includes all overt or covered activities of an individuum to reach a specific goal state. These activities subsume thoughts and feelings, as well as action tendencies and physiological processes. However, motivation research has many different facets. One of them is to look for the causes of it – that means to answer the question, why a motivation is aroused. The motive construct was introduced in scientific psychology to understand this issue. Motives can be seen as latent, trait like preferences for specific goal states, which are aroused by situational cues and so trigger the manifest motivation. Thus, the measure of motives should have high power to predict motivation from different persons in different situations. There is a long tradition to measure motives by scoring fantasy stories to presented ambiguous TAT-pictures (operant motive measure). Another way was the use of questionnaires with self-descriptive statements in fixed answer formats (respondent motive measure). However, both techniques seem to have different pros and cons, with respect to objectivity, reliability, and validity.
The multi motive-grid (MMG) was developed to combine the pros of both techniques by using pictures as well as statements. By presenting ambiguous pictures we follow the roots of TAT, and, by using statements to measure the motivational state we took up the technique of questionnaires. The theory behind the MMG is the assumption that the pictures represent different situations and that the statements represent different states of motivation. The motive scores result from calculating the frequency and patterns of answers – as self ascriptions of different motivational states - across the diverse situations. The MMG was conceptualized to measure the “big three” motives, achievement, affiliation and power – each with respect to its specific hope and fear.
The paper pencil version of the MMG has proven its reliability and validity in a variety of different studies. Recently we are testing a version which tries to make use of the advantages of computer based presentation. These are (1) presentation of single picture-statement combinations, (2) variation of the order – first the picture and than the statement, and vice versa, (3) presentation of pictures and statements under time limitation in diverse variations – e.g. the picture diminishes before the statement is presented, (4) measure of reaction times.
Some of the results will be reported.

William D. Spangler, Binghamton University, NY, USA

Leader Motive Profiles and Organizational Types

McClelland developed the concept of the leadership motive pattern in which high need for power, lower need for affiliation, and activity inhibition or self-control of the need for power predict leader success in traditional bureaucratic organizations. Using theory and research from the areas of organizational behavior and leadership, as well as the motivational theory of McClelland et al., we develop leader motive profiles for eight types of organizations, including hierarchic or bureaucratic, professional, entrepreneurial, social and political, and military and paramilitary organizations. The effective leader in each type of organization will display a unique combination of strong and weak motives. Furthermore, we argue that any strong motive, not just need for power, requires inhibition for organizational success. Available evidence warrants further research into these profiles.

Susanne Steiner, Maika Rawolle & Hugo M. Kehr, Technische Universität München, Germany

Rewards and the Corruption of Intrinsic Motivation- A New Perspective

This poster presents first thoughts on our research agenda which intends to identify how to design rewards without the risk of corrupting intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation results if the current activity arouses one's implicit motives (c.f., Deci & Ryan, 2000; McClelland, 1985). According to Deci, Ryan and Koestner (1999), extrinsic rewards undermine or "corrupt" intrinsic motivation under certain conditions. Kehr (2004) speculated that the corruption effect only occurs if a reward activates cognitive preferences which conflict with the initially aroused implicit motive. This reconfigures the motivational situation in a way that the implicit motive is no longer aroused. Hence, we propose that the corruption effect can be avoided by selecting rewards which are thematically congruent with the current activity and with the aroused implicit motive. We intend to test this proposition in a series of experimental and field studies, the latter in the domain of innovation workshops, where monetary reward in return for participation is common.

Todd M. Thrash and Anne L. Hurst, College of William & Mary, Williamsburg, VA, USA

Within-person congruence between motive arousal and goal pursuit

Congruence between implicit and explicit motives or between motives and goals has been an area of active research. Typically, an individual’s level of congruence is defined normatively; for instance, one is congruent if one falls at the same position (e.g., 75th percentile) in the normative distributions of the two variables of interest. In the current research, we use longitudinal data to examine individual differences in within-person congruence between motive arousal and goal pursuit; one’s level of congruence is defined by the extent to which motive arousal and goal pursuit vary together across time. One-hundred thirteen participants completed the Multi-Motive Grid and a measure of personal goals once a week for five weeks. Multilevel modeling analyses showed that individuals high in self-determination had a stronger within-person covariance between hope for success and pursuit of approach-focused achievement goals, as well as a stronger within-person covariance between hope for power and pursuit of approach-focused power goals. Consistent with past research on implicit-explicit motive congruence (Thrash & Elliot, 2002), self-determination did not predict within-person congruence between avoidance motives and goals. These findings have important implications for the meaning of personal congruence and self-regulation.

Jürgen Wegge, Technical University of Dresden, Germany

Effects of achievement and affiliation motive dispositions on group cohesion and performance in work groups

The effects of achievement and affiliation motives on group cohesion and performance in work teams are examined. Three laboratory experiments (n1 = 120, n2 = 120, n3 = 180) were conducted in which three- and four-person groups had to solve brainstorming tasks, anagram tasks (simple and difficult) and arithmetic tasks (either in a pooled or a sequential manner). For each motive, separate hope and fear components were measured with the Multi-Motive-Grid. It was hypothesized that group cohesion would be positively associated with hope for affiliation (HA) and performance would be positively associated with hope for success (HE). The results corroborate this assumption only in part. It was found that groups with high HA reported to like other group members more in study 1 and study 3. In study 2, group cohesion was positively correlated with HE. With respect to performance it was found that HE was positively associated with brainstorming performance and negatively associated with arithmetic performance (pooled). HA was both negatively associated with anagram solution times and arithmetic performance. Taken together, these results document that task requirements moderate the effects of motives on team functioning. For more creative task, teams with both high HA and HE are recommendable, for tasks requiring problem solving, however, teams with low HA are superior.

Joel Weinberger, Adelphi University, Garden City, NY, USA

Applying Implicit Motivation to Emotional Well-Being and Psychotherapy

Historically, implicit motivation research developed out of a personality and social psychology tradition. It has therefore rarely been applied to clinical phenomena. Clinical psychologists talk and write about the importance of motivation and of the therapeutic relationship but have rarely made use of the findings and insights of the relevant implicit motive literature. I will attempt to connect these two areas in two ways. First, I will discuss research on how implicit motivation interacts with other variables like explicit motivation and traits to affect emotional well-being. Next, I will present some research showing how a motive to merge with something larger than the self has therapeutic significance in psychotherapeutic settings.